In foreign language teaching and learning, teachers have always tried to adopt a particular teaching approach or to use more than one methodology in their classroom practice. The emergence of different methods throughout the history of language teaching has been affected by historical events, such as scientific research in psychology and linguistics, as well as technological innovations.

‘An approach is equivalent to a set of dispositions, knowledge, beliefs, presuppositions […] principles about what human language is, FL (Foreign Language), and what it is to learn and teach a target language. […] such dispositions and knowledge must also encompass conceptions of man or the human person, of the classroom and the represented roles of teacher and student of a new language’ (ALMEIDA FILHO, 1993, p. 17).

Almeida Filho (1993, p. 20) defines methodology in language teaching as a collection of procedures, techniques, or ‘experiencing the target language’.

The classical method involved grammar and translation in the formal teaching of Greek and Latin. Then the direct method, which included oral and natural methods, focused on associating foreign phrases and words without relying on the mother tongue. In the 1920s, the reading method emerged as a way to teach foreign languages over a relatively short two-year period, with an emphasis on reading skills (RIVERS, 1975, p. 30).

In the 1950s, the audio-lingual method was considered the ideal approach for teaching and learning foreign languages. This method emerged because of the increasing international trade, radio and television programs, technical assistance projects, and educational exchanges, which encouraged communication between countries (Rivers, 1975, p. 31).

Based on psychological theories of behavior – influenced by Skinner’s studies – and linguistics, it was believed that by first developing oral skills such as speaking and listening to a high standard, this would provide a foundation for improving reading and writing skills later on. According to Stack (1966, p. 83), “the process of learning to speak precedes reading and writing. The audio-lingual theory of language learning involves practicing oral language skills before introducing written language skills. Having proficiency in spoken language will help students to read and write more quickly and effectively.” Behaviorist psychology had a significant impact on foreign language teaching during the 1940s and 1950s. This approach meant that teachers did not correct students’ mistakes but instead used techniques and tools to reinforce correct answers.

At the end of the 1950s, ‘instructional technology’ emerged, encompassing all resources (television equipment, language laboratories, etc.). The ‘teaching machines’ are used for teaching and training purposes ‘from some so-called “educational” toys to television or computers’ (PFROMM NETTO, 1976, p. 7, 53).

In 1960, B. F. Skinner studied behavioral psychology through the experimental analysis of behavior, a special branch of psychology. In his work titled ‘Technology of Teaching’, he introduced ‘teaching machines’ and ‘programmed instruction’. According to the behaviorist view, humans act as additional living elements with the ability to transmit information but not change it. Individuals are seen as complex machines, and human intelligence can be measured and controlled by objective standards, with behavior being predictable (SKINNER, 1975).

Programmed instruction, takes the form of programmed texts, teaching machines, recorded tapes, etc. Educational technologies include programmed instruction, mass media, audiovisual resources, and sophisticated systems such as multimedia, language laboratories, computers, and satellite teaching. From the 1960s onwards, the use of these resources, known as technological aids or auxiliary technological resources, became increasingly important in the language teaching-learning process. Lado (1964, p. 10) emphasizes the practical exercise of the spoken language and states that teachers should be familiar with audio-lingual techniques, qualified to use these techniques in the classroom and have an understanding of their effectiveness, contributions, and limitations.

This language teaching approach focuses on enabling students to learn through real-life experiences, which will help them to effectively communicate, understand, and structure their learning. Motivation and emotion are also crucial factors for effective language acquisition. One of the primary instructional techniques of this method involves oral dialogue, which includes imitating and memorizing spoken sentences. Through continuous and repetitive practice of vocabulary and sentences, students develop the ability to manipulate specific language structures in various contexts.

The use of ‘visual aids’, also known as ‘visual support resources’, is highly sought after in language teaching. One of the primary teaching aids is the language laboratory. According to Stack (1966, p. 84), the use of these resources in the school and classroom allows students to (re)produce speech sounds by ‘training the correct position of the vowel organs and developing oral language through intensive practice’.

The audio-lingual method had some shortcomings as a theory of foreign language teaching and learning. The students learned the language mechanically, which made it difficult for them to communicate effectively with native speakers of the language they were studying. The techniques of memorization and drilling were tiring and boring, which demotivated the students. Additionally, training the students in language use patterns by analogy prevented them from truly understanding what they were doing. There was also a long gap between the oral and written presentations of the material. Furthermore, short dialogues and dramatizations were not suitable for teenage or adult students. Lastly, this method required a significant amount of preparation and organization from the teacher, as well as physical energy to maintain the oral rhythm and perfect intonation.

Since the 1960s, there has been a growing interest in changing language teaching methodology due to the prevalence of transformational theory in the linguistic environment. Initially, there was a shift away from the audio-lingual methodology to embracing transformational linguistic description. However, this was followed by more considered approaches, including reformulating certain aspects of the audio-lingual method and seeking a methodology of their own (LIMA, 1981, p. 50).

In the context of language teaching and learning, this new methodology aims to incorporate the cultural environment of the target language into the classroom. This will be achieved by using audiovisual techniques and incorporating the voices of native speakers into dialogues with colleagues and the teacher. It is important to use the ‘target language’ when it is impossible to ensure that students understand the task through other means.

When discussing audiovisual methodology, Lima (1981, p. 75) emphasizes that there isn’t just one audiovisual method, but rather several methods, referred to as “pedagogical sets using audiovisual resources and based on a certain methodological conception.” While audiovisual resources are important in these methods, their effectiveness is heavily influenced by a “set of theoretical and scientific conceptions.” Lima argues that teaching with audiovisual resources goes beyond simply having electronic effects and equipment in the classroom. Rather, educators were seeking methodological foundations and a definition of the role of sound and visual elements in the language teaching and learning process.

The audio-lingual method originated in France in 1960 and was launched in 1961. It gained prominence in foreign language teaching for its innovative use of audiovisual techniques. However, it later faced criticism, which suggested that the selection and organization of audiovisual resources should be based on linguistic criteria more suitable for teaching purposes.

Another version of this method was introduced in 1972. Unlike the previous version, which was based on the North American structuralist current, the new version had the following characteristics: the images aimed to depict the reality of the environment more naturally and beautifully, without providing explicit instructional clues. The images were designed to prompt the student to visualize a communication situation, appealing to their intelligence. The characters in the images were well-developed, with a certain psychological depth, allowing the students to identify with them without projecting themselves onto them. This new version also allowed for greater personal freedom for both the teacher and the student.

In the 1970s, the Communicative Movement emerged, prioritizing the use of language for communication. As a result, the audiovisual method gradually lost its prestige. However, audiovisual resources continue to be used in this new approach to language teaching.

Communicative teaching is the methodology adopted in undergraduate foreign language courses, based on the concept of language as communication. This approach emerged in the 1970s and brought about changes recognized in the fields of psychology, anthropology, philosophy of language, and psycholinguistics by Vygotsky.

The Communicative Movement originated in Europe in 1970 in response to the increasing demand for language proficiency due to the consolidation of the European economy and its member states. In 1971, the Council of Europe, a cultural and educational organization, tasked a group of experts with developing a unified language teaching system. Linguist David Wilkins (1972), working for the Council, advocated for the communicative approach to language teaching by structuring the curriculum components to meet the student’s needs. These ideas can be viewed as the starting point of communicative teaching in Europe.

The Communicative Movement suggests that foreign language teaching should be influenced by the way language is used in social interactions. This idea is based on Vygotsky’s work ‘Language and Thought’, where he emphasizes the role of language in communication and the social aspect of language acquisition. According to Vygotsky, language is a tool for communication, and knowledge is internalized from social interactions to the individual. This perspective highlights the importance of studying the social relationships between children and adults from an early age, emphasizing the social roots of language.

Children are initially exposed to their parents’ language in their social environment and learn that language is used for communication. As they observe the external function of language as a way to control their cognitive activity, they internalize it. Therefore, language acquisition is linked to the development of controlled and regulated cognitive activity.

The European linguistic tradition recognized new perspectives on the concept of language, incorporating semantics and pragmatics into the reformulation of the concept of meaning. It was understood that meaning didn’t solely arise from form, such as the dictionary or grammar, but also from negotiation in socio-cultural contexts where speech acts take place.

In 1978, the English linguist Widdowson laid the theoretical foundations of the Communicative Movement in language teaching, distinguishing between grammatical form (usage) and communicative use (use) and stressing the significance of linguistic competence. According to Widdowson (1978, p. 54), language competence “involves the language user’s knowledge of the abstract rules of the language as defined in grammar books”. He recommended language teaching based on discourse analysis concerning Labov (1969). From this discourse perspective, teachers should instruct in the domain of discursive expression, transcending the level of the sentence and its components.

In the 1980s, Johnson (1982) outlined the key criteria for a communicative-based methodology. According to him, teaching techniques and classroom practice had to meet specific standards to be recognized as communicative. In this vein, Carroll (1980) proposed appropriate procedures for evaluating students’ communicative performance.

In Brazil, communicative teaching was introduced in the 1980s to promote meaningful learning of a new language. Ausubel et al’s (1980, p. 34) concept of meaningful learning involves a process in which symbolically expressed ideas are connected to information that the student has previously acquired. This connection is made by integrating new content into the student’s cognitive structure, allowing the student to incorporate the material learned into their existing knowledge framework.

The modern approach to language teaching places a strong emphasis on using language for real communication. This approach also highlights the importance of using teaching materials in the classroom. Carvalho’s (1995) study, ‘The Use of Feature Films in EFL Classes in Brazil’, presents a significant discussion on the use of materials referred to as ‘authentic’ or, according to the National Curriculum Parameters, ‘of frequent social use’, in the methodological practices of communicative teaching.

According to Carvalho (1995), the use of real-life materials (posters, magazines, newspapers, maps, photos, pictures, poems, advertisements, music, films, television programs, computers, etc.) in foreign language teaching in the 1970s was based on three main aspects. Firstly, these materials provide students with opportunities to engage in actual language usage. Secondly, they offer direct access to the culture associated with the language being studied. Lastly, they provide significant input for stimulating and motivating foreign language learning.

However, Carvalho (1995) also highlights that the principles of this communicative teaching approach have been neglected in pedagogical practices, with teachers relying extensively and inflexibly on teaching materials such as coursebooks, which often create artificial learning contexts.

In discussing the artificial nature of foreign language teaching, Moita Lopes (1996, p. 183) acknowledges the limitations of the activities introduced by teaching materials. He states that contemporary practices of language use in the foreign language classroom, aimed at developing what is known as communicative competence, focus on actual usage. This emphasis has highlighted discursive practices in which both the teacher and the students adopt personas different from their own by changing their names.

In his 2002 analysis of the role of textbooks in language teaching, Richards argues that these materials guide and support the teaching program by presenting preplanned content in a systematic and standardized manner. He notes that textbooks portray an idealized view of the world and tend to avoid controversial subjects, instead offering a perspective that aligns with the ideals of a white middle class as the standard to be followed.

In addressing this issue specifically within the context of teaching foreign languages, Swan (1985) stresses that foreign language teachers should view the classroom as a larger cultural context. In addition to the pedagogical aspects, teachers should consider the social, political, and personal dimensions that exist beyond the classroom. So, the pedagogical activities facilitated by the use of teaching materials should support this broader perspective.

To conclude this short review, we recall Widdowson (1989) who stresses that the following aspects should be taken into consideration when selecting and creating communicative material: rationality, integration, control, and interdisciplinary relevance. Rationality refers to the material’s ability to prompt reflection and reasoning. Integration relates to developing listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Control considers the cognitive maturity and mental capacity of the learners. Interdisciplinary relevance involves using language to focus on other areas of knowledge and language to focus on other areas of knowledge.

References

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